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<section style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2TTobquOdkHCNiakcbYCaEqKM5TptPSO2e25ZzsWR3MAzIzpzwpSvrdw/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 30px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;border-style: solid;border-width: 1px;border-radius: 0px;border-color: rgb(24, 54, 118);padding: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="transform: translate3d(0px, 0px, 0px);margin-top: -30px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="font-size: 24px;color: rgb(108, 139, 156);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;"><em style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">导 读</strong></em></span></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;transform: translate3d(0px, 0px, 0px);box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: justify;font-size: 15px;color: rgb(108, 139, 156);line-height: 2;padding-right: 10px;padding-left: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">从政治体制和经济社会发展来看，国际上自然资源国家所有权有属于国家所有和属于国王所有两种情况。从国家体制来看，中央集权制（单一制）国家对自然资源一般采取集权管理的模式。</p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 20%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: -10px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;text-align: center;font-size: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);width: 1.6em;height: 1.6em;line-height: 1.6em;border-radius: 100%;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;font-size: 18px;color: rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">1</strong></p></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -0.76em;border-bottom: 0.8em solid rgb(45, 66, 87);border-left: 0.8em solid transparent !important;border-right: 0.5em solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 35%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;border-style: double;border-width: 1px;border-radius: 0px;border-color: rgb(144, 166, 176);box-shadow: rgb(0, 0, 0) 0px 0px 0px;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f20tS3mGeONEEPicXMhLnuD3CdsLicl5Kd1ibfEW2GlpEkk4x5B878eUIPg/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 65%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;text-align: center;opacity: 0.64;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;border-left: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);border-right: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);padding-right: 5px;padding-left: 5px;font-size: 22px;color: rgb(45, 66, 87);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">俄罗斯</strong></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;opacity: 0.26;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="width: 100%;height: 5px;background-image: linear-gradient(to left, rgb(100, 124, 107) 0%, rgb(255, 255, 255) 100%);box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 14px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">以所有权控制，国家统一综合管理</strong></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;background-position: 0% 0%;background-repeat: repeat;background-size: 99.0957%;background-attachment: scroll;letter-spacing: 0px;background-image: url("http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_png/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2KMkP4WCN3qUEiccZnMUHJdIM22jM528F2xFwyicrQvlwfrDAHXDhNtXw/640?wx_fmt=png");box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin: 10px 0% 5px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f24iaynrjb09tlpsw6ibCmDBQQO9wELx6SOWN47G0ZWG4ticicNLkeGyoWug/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 13px;color: rgb(160, 160, 160);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">俄罗斯夏宫花园，图片来源：网络</p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: justify;font-size: 15px;line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;padding-right: 15px;padding-left: 15px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">俄罗斯位于欧亚大陆北部，国土面积1709.8万平方公里，地域辽阔，是世界上土地面积最大的国家。俄罗斯自然禀赋得天独厚，森林、水、煤、天然气等自然资源数量均居世界前列。其中，森林覆盖面积809万平方公里，占国土面积的47.32%，居世界第一位；淡水总量世界第一；煤蕴藏量2000亿吨，居世界第二位；已探明天然气蕴藏量为48万亿立方米，占世界探明储量的1/3以上。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">基于前苏联社会主义国家的历史背景，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">俄罗斯国有土地占土地总量的92%，居绝对主导地位</span>，公民所有占比6.9%，法人仅占比0.9%。与土地类似，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">俄罗斯绝大多数的矿产、水、海洋、森林等自然资源也属于国家所有。</span>尽管俄罗斯自然资源所有权由国家所有制、集体所有制、集体股份所有制和公民所有制四类组成，但国家对自然资源所有权仍可以进行严格控制，形成了俄罗斯特有的<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">以公权管制为主导的自然资源所有权控制模式</strong>。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">基于此，俄罗斯也形成了自然资源综合管理模式，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">由<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">自然资源与生态部</strong>负责对矿产资源、水资源、森林资源等实施统一管理、严格保护</span>。自然资源与生态部下设自然资源环境保护、森林资源管理、水资源管理等部门，按<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">统一管理的原则集中制定</span>自然保护区、国家公园、禁猎区、禁采伐区等管控政策，以及森林、水资源利用与保护政策，并制定生态安全监督政策。同时，下设地下资源利用局加强地下资源（油气、固定矿产、地下水及设施）资产管理、矿业权许可管理以及矿产资源信息库建设；下设水资源局加强水资源资产、水资源利用和水质管理等；下设林业局加强森林资源资产管理、森林资源保护与再生利用等。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">为了促进自然资源产业经济发展，俄罗斯<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">将土地、能源等经营性自然资源单独分离出来，划归经济发展部和能源部管理</span>，有效实现了经营性自然资源和公益性自然资源的分开管理。在<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">产权管理</strong>上，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">俄罗斯联邦地籍总局负责对自然资源实行登记，联邦财产关系部负责管理自然资源权属</span>。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-right: 22px;text-align: center;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: bottom;width: 0px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section style="width: 0px;border-bottom: 24px solid rgb(105, 115, 117);border-left: 11px solid transparent !important;border-right: 11px solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -21px;margin-right: 1px;margin-left: 1px;border-bottom: 22px solid rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;border-left: 10px solid transparent !important;border-right: 10px solid transparent !important;"></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="padding: 10px;width: 100%;border-width: 1px;border-style: solid;border-color: rgb(105, 115, 117);box-shadow: rgb(204, 204, 204) 2.82843px 2.82843px 5px;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);margin-top: -2px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="font-size: 15px;color: rgb(32, 146, 239);line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">俄罗斯自然资源统一制定政策、分类型利用管理的模式值得借鉴，尤其是在加强国家对自然资源的公权管理方面，有积极经验。</p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 20%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: -10px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;text-align: center;font-size: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);width: 1.6em;height: 1.6em;line-height: 1.6em;border-radius: 100%;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;font-size: 18px;color: rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">2</strong></p></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -0.76em;border-bottom: 0.8em solid rgb(45, 66, 87);border-left: 0.8em solid transparent !important;border-right: 0.5em solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 35%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;border-style: double;border-width: 1px;border-radius: 0px;border-color: rgb(144, 166, 176);box-shadow: rgb(0, 0, 0) 0px 0px 0px;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2bNicqqx0jvIA7evaicUIyMVyghghtJd34WMlTYeFZFMBNPuIVch6iby9A/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 65%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;text-align: center;opacity: 0.64;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;border-left: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);border-right: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);padding-right: 5px;padding-left: 5px;font-size: 22px;color: rgb(45, 66, 87);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">美国</strong></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;opacity: 0.26;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="width: 100%;height: 5px;background-image: linear-gradient(to left, rgb(100, 124, 107) 0%, rgb(255, 255, 255) 100%);box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 14px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">注重价值实现，构建产权交易市场</strong></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;background-position: 0% 0%;background-repeat: repeat;background-size: 99.0957%;background-attachment: scroll;letter-spacing: 0px;background-image: url("http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_png/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2KMkP4WCN3qUEiccZnMUHJdIM22jM528F2xFwyicrQvlwfrDAHXDhNtXw/640?wx_fmt=png");box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin: 10px 0% 5px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2cKXhc6Hpuxicm6MYqAGibUzSgC0iclPJBzKonTGVx2KZvbtsY9QtI4eKg/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 13px;color: rgb(160, 160, 160);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">美国黄石公园牵牛花池，图片来源：环球网</p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: justify;font-size: 15px;line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;padding-right: 15px;padding-left: 15px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">美国是资源大国，国土面积983.2万平方公里，耕地面积155.11万平方公里；煤、石油、天然气、铁、钾、磷酸盐等矿产储量居世界前列；森林面积约44亿亩，森林覆盖率为33%；水资源总量约为2.95万亿立方米。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">作为一个联邦制资本主义国家，美国联邦各州有相对较大的权力，各州有独立的行政权、立法权和司法权。从土地所有制来看，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">土地所有权由私有土地（59%）、联邦土地（32%）、州政府土地（7%）、印第安人保留地（2%）</span>共同组成。私有土地为主的国情决定了美国的产权制度体系更加倾向于注重私权的保护，任何人使用不属于自己的土地都必须购买其所有权或使用权。联邦政府若使用属于州政府的土地，必须要征得州政府同意并通过购买而取得，任何单位和个人使用或开发不属于自己的土地，都需要有偿付费。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">多元的自然资源所有权主体、发达的社会经济条件、完善的法律制度，为美国自然资源交易市场起步奠定了基础条件。<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">在美国，所有自然资源产权的获取和交易都要<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">有偿付费并按照规定进行</strong>。</span>开采和利用自然资源须持有许可证，如开采矿产资源需持有采矿许可证，砍伐森林须持有砍伐许可证，草地放牧需持有放牧许可证，开发海洋需持海洋开发许可证。私人和企业要在公共土地（联邦土地）上开采矿产资源，首先应向内政部土地管理局申请租地，缴纳土地租金和矿产资源费等。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">美国对自然资源资产管理高度重视，目前形成了<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">世界上最完善的自然资源资产价值管理体系</span>。比如，美国农业自然资源保护局下设土壤调查处、资源盘存处、资源评价处等，负责土壤资源评估；金融管理处负责土壤经济效益评估；保持运作处负责土壤生态效益评估，保证土壤资源的可持续利用。另外，美国<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">在内政部中单独设立了自然资源收益办公室，代表国家负责自然资源收益的收缴和管理</span>。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-right: 22px;text-align: center;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: bottom;width: 0px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section style="width: 0px;border-bottom: 24px solid rgb(105, 115, 117);border-left: 11px solid transparent !important;border-right: 11px solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -21px;margin-right: 1px;margin-left: 1px;border-bottom: 22px solid rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;border-left: 10px solid transparent !important;border-right: 10px solid transparent !important;"></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="padding: 10px;width: 100%;border-width: 1px;border-style: solid;border-color: rgb(105, 115, 117);box-shadow: rgb(204, 204, 204) 2.82843px 2.82843px 5px;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);margin-top: -2px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="font-size: 15px;color: rgb(32, 146, 239);line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">美国的自然资源产权市场模式值得借鉴，但前提是构建清晰的自然资源产权体系，完善自然资源的有偿使用制度，促进自然资源市场的建立。</p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 20%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: -10px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;text-align: center;font-size: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);width: 1.6em;height: 1.6em;line-height: 1.6em;border-radius: 100%;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;font-size: 18px;color: rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">3</strong></p></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -0.76em;border-bottom: 0.8em solid rgb(45, 66, 87);border-left: 0.8em solid transparent !important;border-right: 0.5em solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 35%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;border-style: double;border-width: 1px;border-radius: 0px;border-color: rgb(144, 166, 176);box-shadow: rgb(0, 0, 0) 0px 0px 0px;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2Ovhx5YLzlFdsunquSNoNq1DofJ4V3dfp8HxumV0qRpVaT6g8pebibDQ/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 65%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;text-align: center;opacity: 0.64;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;border-left: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);border-right: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);padding-right: 5px;padding-left: 5px;font-size: 22px;color: rgb(45, 66, 87);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">英国</strong></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;opacity: 0.26;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="width: 100%;height: 5px;background-image: linear-gradient(to left, rgb(100, 124, 107) 0%, rgb(255, 255, 255) 100%);box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 14px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">以利用定归属，统一资源资产管理</strong></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;background-position: 0% 0%;background-repeat: repeat;background-size: 99.0957%;background-attachment: scroll;letter-spacing: 0px;background-image: url("http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_png/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2KMkP4WCN3qUEiccZnMUHJdIM22jM528F2xFwyicrQvlwfrDAHXDhNtXw/640?wx_fmt=png");box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin: 10px 0% 5px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2QXYvGX5ewib45EMo6TohXGJp3ekviciba7aUJickuvtx5JFbDuW1NcRuxw/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 13px;color: rgb(160, 160, 160);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">伯克郡温莎城堡及其大公园，图片来源：腾讯财经</p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: justify;font-size: 15px;line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;padding-right: 15px;padding-left: 15px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">英国国土面积约24.40万平方公里（其中耕地面积占25.45%，森林面积占11.89%），铁矿储量约为27亿吨，煤可采储量约达46亿吨，石油储量约为70亿吨，天然气储量达1.2万～3.8万亿立方米。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">英国作为世界上第一个君主立宪制国家，其<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">土地及地上附着的自然资源所有权归属英国女王</span>，但其所有权已经形同虚设。以土地资源为例，英国真正的土地权利为不同形式的土地保有权，包括自由保有权和租用保有权两大类：自由保有权为保有权人永久所有，一般以契约或居住、耕作使用等形式为基础确定；租用保有权有一定年期（125年、40年、20年、10年等）并通过合同或协议确定土地权利和内容，在租赁期内确定的土地权利和内容不能随意更改，自由保有权人不能随意干涉。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">英国土地所有权制度的基本属性是<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">以利用定归属，从归属转向利用</strong>。</span>从本质上来讲，附属于土地之上的各类自然资源权利属于土地使用者。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">自然资源所有权的虚设，致使英国形成了分散的自然资源管理模式，在中央一级并没有统一的自然资源管理机构，而是由若干部委分类管理。但为有效行使女王皇家自然资源资产所有者职责，从18世纪60年代起，英国政府专门设立了皇家地产管理机构，统一行使金、银矿产和大部分海上非能源矿产的所有者和管理者职责。<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">英国皇家地产局</span></strong><span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">负责管理英国55%的海滩、约一半的河口湾和潮（水）河河底，以及12海里内领海水域的海床，拥有这些地区大陆架矿产资源（主要是海沙、砾石、钾盐和盐）的勘探和开采权。</span></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-right: 22px;text-align: center;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: bottom;width: 0px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section style="width: 0px;border-bottom: 24px solid rgb(105, 115, 117);border-left: 11px solid transparent !important;border-right: 11px solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -21px;margin-right: 1px;margin-left: 1px;border-bottom: 22px solid rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;border-left: 10px solid transparent !important;border-right: 10px solid transparent !important;"></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="padding: 10px;width: 100%;border-width: 1px;border-style: solid;border-color: rgb(105, 115, 117);box-shadow: rgb(204, 204, 204) 2.82843px 2.82843px 5px;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);margin-top: -2px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="font-size: 15px;color: rgb(32, 146, 239);line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">英国成立专门的自然资源资产管理机构，行使自然资源所有者职能，并逐步完善自然资源使用权制度。这使自然资源使用权人能够承担相应的权利和义务，达到促进自然资源合理利用的目的。</p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 20%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: -10px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;text-align: center;font-size: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);width: 1.6em;height: 1.6em;line-height: 1.6em;border-radius: 100%;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;font-size: 18px;color: rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">4</p></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -0.76em;border-bottom: 0.8em solid rgb(45, 66, 87);border-left: 0.8em solid transparent !important;border-right: 0.5em solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 35%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;border-style: double;border-width: 1px;border-radius: 0px;border-color: rgb(144, 166, 176);box-shadow: rgb(0, 0, 0) 0px 0px 0px;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2hiapDV9Rmq2120lcnqI3ysgYfsFLhfrmYnosavVrrqFsVjz9Mu99ibgA/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 65%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;text-align: center;opacity: 0.64;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;border-left: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);border-right: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);padding-right: 5px;padding-left: 5px;font-size: 22px;color: rgb(45, 66, 87);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">日本</strong></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;opacity: 0.26;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="width: 100%;height: 5px;background-image: linear-gradient(to left, rgb(100, 124, 107) 0%, rgb(255, 255, 255) 100%);box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 14px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">以保护为导向，构建生态管理体系</strong></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;background-position: 0% 0%;background-repeat: repeat;background-size: 99.0957%;background-attachment: scroll;letter-spacing: 0px;background-image: url("http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_png/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2KMkP4WCN3qUEiccZnMUHJdIM22jM528F2xFwyicrQvlwfrDAHXDhNtXw/640?wx_fmt=png");box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin: 10px 0% 5px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2UHsKtAYCM5rMXA7wsvGmlwK6gP0cK4CdM8pbVo8pGtb2Grtm5oba6w/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 13px;color: rgb(160, 160, 160);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">日本富士山，图片来源：网络</p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: justify;font-size: 15px;line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;padding-right: 15px;padding-left: 15px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">日本国土面积只有37.8万平方公里，自然资源贫乏，除煤炭、天然气、硫磺等极少量的矿产资源外，其他生产原料、燃料等都要从海外进口，但日本森林和渔业资源丰富，森林覆盖率占日本陆地面积的69%，是世界上森林覆盖率最高的国家。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">自明治维新后，日本将土地封建领主所有改为了土地私人所有。<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">日本现行的土地所有制主要分为三种形式，即国家所有、公共所有、个人与法人所有。</span>根据日本国土厅土地白皮书统计，国有土地和公有土地（地方政府所有）占37%，私有土地（个人与法人所有）占63%。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">日本国有和公有土地大部分是山林、河川、海滨地，主要为国家及全民的公益利用，更强调对生态的保护。</span>如日本国有林区90%划为防护林，由中央政府投资，主要发挥国土保安作用；公有林由地方政府管理，也主要发挥公益作用。而且，为了保障公共利益，日本对私人所有土地的使用也设置了限制，如对林地上森林砍伐、林业发展、植树造林、林区民众生活的基本标准，以及水资源的使用目的、数量和时限等都作出了明确规定。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">自然资源贫乏的现状，迫使日本政府更加注重对自然资源的保护和合理利用。早在上世纪80年代后期，日本就已经开始由消耗资源的资源型管理模式，向保护生态环境的生态型管理模式转变。<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">为保护自然资源，日本构建了完善的自然资源物权制度，将其作为一种私权进行交易。</span>同时，日本又通过公权力的介入，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">运用特别法立法的方式，限制或禁止人们对自然资源的开发与利用，并通过经济手段对保全自然资源有贡献者实行补助制度</span>。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-right: 22px;text-align: center;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: bottom;width: 0px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section style="width: 0px;border-bottom: 24px solid rgb(105, 115, 117);border-left: 11px solid transparent !important;border-right: 11px solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -21px;margin-right: 1px;margin-left: 1px;border-bottom: 22px solid rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;border-left: 10px solid transparent !important;border-right: 10px solid transparent !important;"></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="padding: 10px;width: 100%;border-width: 1px;border-style: solid;border-color: rgb(105, 115, 117);box-shadow: rgb(204, 204, 204) 2.82843px 2.82843px 5px;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);margin-top: -2px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="font-size: 15px;color: rgb(32, 146, 239);line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">日本通过自然资源产权制度的设置，强化对重要生态资源（区）的保护，对生态区位重要的自然资源实行国有和公有，同时加大对自然资源使用权人的产权限制。</p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 20%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: -10px;margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;text-align: center;font-size: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);width: 1.6em;height: 1.6em;line-height: 1.6em;border-radius: 100%;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;font-size: 18px;color: rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">5</strong></p></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -0.76em;border-bottom: 0.8em solid rgb(45, 66, 87);border-left: 0.8em solid transparent !important;border-right: 0.5em solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 40%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 0.5em;margin-bottom: 0.5em;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="background-color: rgb(45, 66, 87);height: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 35%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;border-style: double;border-width: 1px;border-radius: 0px;border-color: rgb(144, 166, 176);box-shadow: rgb(0, 0, 0) 0px 0px 0px;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2LcBpsO560F91ibBFfZD5LldnTokFIiaLwH1oQvM0aOA8TGvt5sNIhocA/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section></section><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;width: 65%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;text-align: center;opacity: 0.64;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: top;border-left: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);border-right: 2px dotted rgb(70, 127, 156);padding-right: 5px;padding-left: 5px;font-size: 22px;color: rgb(45, 66, 87);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">澳大利亚</strong></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;opacity: 0.26;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="width: 100%;height: 5px;background-image: linear-gradient(to left, rgb(100, 124, 107) 0%, rgb(255, 255, 255) 100%);box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 14px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">围绕土地产权，实现空间整体管护</strong></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin: 10px 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;background-position: 0% 0%;background-repeat: repeat;background-size: 99.0957%;background-attachment: scroll;letter-spacing: 0px;background-image: url("http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_png/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2KMkP4WCN3qUEiccZnMUHJdIM22jM528F2xFwyicrQvlwfrDAHXDhNtXw/640?wx_fmt=png");box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="text-align: center;margin: 10px 0% 5px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="max-width: 100%;vertical-align: middle;display: inline-block;width: 90%;overflow: hidden !important;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="text-align:center"><img src="http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/q8sO8D8U37xP9BeibXgt1F86PhXPjm3f2gLdIJTnJrdNgrWibn3wIw1pUL6Y91oyr19VL2NYG0hnNo4biawjasBUQ/640?wx_fmt=jpeg" style="max-width:100%;" /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 13px;color: rgb(160, 160, 160);box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">澳大利亚袋鼠岛神奇岩石，图片来源：澳大利亚旅游局网站</p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: justify;font-size: 15px;line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;padding-right: 15px;padding-left: 15px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">澳大利亚国土面积774.1万平方公里，国土辽阔，自然资源丰富。矿产资源至少有70余种，被称为“坐在矿车上的国家”。铝土矿储量居世界首位，是世界第二大氧化铝、铁矿石、铀矿出口国，第三大铝和黄金出口国。原油储量2400亿公升，天然气储量1.36万亿立方米，液化石油气储量1740亿公升。森林覆盖面积占国土总面积的20%，天然森林面积约1.55亿公顷。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">澳大利亚是由六个州和两个地区（北领地和首都领地）组成的联邦制国家，中央政府与地方政府的管理权限在宪法中明确规定，互不隶属、互不干涉。<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">在澳大利亚，土地的含义就是不动产，从物质组成上看其包括地表以及地表的土壤、土地上所有改良物（如建筑物）。</span>理论上的土地所有权可以上至天空、下至地心，但不包括矿产、石油、水。因此，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">澳大利亚大部分的自然资源都属于“土地”的概念范畴</span>。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">根据澳大利亚土地登记制度，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">土地登记即不动产登记，是对土地的占有、使用、出售、出租、抵押以及相关土地权利的登记，土地登记也不仅仅是地表权利的登记</span><span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">，还包括空间权益的登记</span>，所有附属于土地上的建筑物与改良物，都会随着土地一同变更，由土地登记局统一进行登记。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">澳大利亚的土地登记制度发达，土地登记是以承载自然资源的土地空间为基础，登记土地资源的所有权，并通过各种法律明确土地上水流、森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂等不同自然资源类型的权利和义务，限制土地所有权人的相关权利，实现对自然资源的保护和利用。如澳大利亚昆士兰州只登记土地，不登记建筑物，将土地、房屋及附着物看成一个产权管理的整体。也就是说，以土地为载体对地上、地下空间进行整体登记，而不是孤立的。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-right: 22px;text-align: center;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;vertical-align: bottom;width: 0px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section style="width: 0px;border-bottom: 24px solid rgb(105, 115, 117);border-left: 11px solid transparent !important;border-right: 11px solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section><section style="width: 0px;margin-top: -21px;margin-right: 1px;margin-left: 1px;border-bottom: 22px solid rgb(255, 255, 255);box-sizing: border-box;border-left: 10px solid transparent !important;border-right: 10px solid transparent !important;"></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-bottom: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="padding: 10px;width: 100%;border-width: 1px;border-style: solid;border-color: rgb(105, 115, 117);box-shadow: rgb(204, 204, 204) 2.82843px 2.82843px 5px;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);margin-top: -2px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="font-size: 15px;color: rgb(32, 146, 239);line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">澳大利亚的自然资源产权登记制度，强调以土地为载体，在登记土地资源所有权和使用权的基础上，明确其产权范围内土地上的水流、森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂等不同自然资源利用限制条件和保护要求。</p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-top: 10px;margin-bottom: 10px;text-align: center;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="border-radius: 0.5em;border-color: rgb(70, 127, 156);border-style: solid;border-width: 0.14em;padding-top: 10px;padding-right: 10px;padding-left: 10px;display: inline-block;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="transform: translate3d(15px, 0px, 0px);text-align: right;margin-right: 0%;margin-bottom: 10px;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: center;font-size: 28px;line-height: 1.4em;color: rgb(241, 54, 63);letter-spacing: 20px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">经验启示</strong></span></p></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;background-color: rgb(70, 127, 156);box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);letter-spacing: 1px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">  统一保护管理  分类开发利用  </strong></p></section></section></section></section></section></section></section><section style="width: 0px;border-top: 0.8em solid rgb(70, 127, 156);margin: auto;border-left: 0.8em solid transparent !important;border-right: 0.8em solid transparent !important;box-sizing: border-box;"></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="margin-right: 0%;margin-left: 0%;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="display: inline-block;width: 100%;vertical-align: top;background-color: rgba(226, 200, 170, 0.11);padding-top: 10px;padding-right: 10px;padding-left: 10px;box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="text-align: justify;font-size: 15px;color: rgb(105, 115, 117);line-height: 2;letter-spacing: 1px;padding-right: 15px;padding-left: 15px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="letter-spacing: 0px;box-sizing: border-box;">从政治体制和经济社会发展来看，国际上自然资源国家所有权有<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">属于国家所有</strong>和<strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">属于国王所有</strong>两种情况。属于国家所有的，国家对自然资源的所有权控制较为严格，对自然资源产权的流转限制较多，一般自然资源交易市场不太发达，如俄罗斯；属于国王所有的，一般仅是名义上所有，真正的自然资源权利为不同形式的保有权，如英国。</span><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">自然资源所有权分属不同主体且实行市场经济体制多年的国家</span>，由于相关法律法规相对完善，自然资源产权人对产权流转的需求较为强烈，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">可较多运用经济手段来进行产权管理</span>，自然资源市场化程度也较高，如美国。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">从国家体制来看，<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">中央集权制（单一制）国家对自然资源一般采取集权管理的模式</span>，地方政府与中央政府在机构设置、管理职能和运作方式上保持一致，中央更加注重对自然资源的利用、保护，如日本。而联邦制（复合制）国家又包含集权联邦制和松散联邦制两种类型，集权联邦制国家与中央集权制国家较为相似，中央具有较大的自然资源管理权利，如印度；松散联邦制则是各州政府具有较大的自然资源管理权利，如美国。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">从资源禀赋来看，自然资源不丰富、人口密度大的国家更加注重自然资源精细化的保护与管理，如日本。而自然资源丰富、人口密度小的国家对自然资源管理更加注重对自然资源的开发利用，如澳大利亚的工业、科学和资源部（原初级产业能源部）负责资源产业政策的研究、制定与执行。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">我国是公有制和中央集权制国家，自然资源属于国家和集体所有，中央对自然资源有较大的管理权利。同时，我国自然资源丰富，还是发展中国家，生态环境保护压力很大，仍然需要利用自然资源促进发展。这些基本国情决定了我国要走<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">资源管理、产业管理和生态管理并重</span>的道路。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">要加强生态保护，就要<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">按照自然生态的整体性、系统性及其内在规律进行统一管理，统一制定规划、统一保护修复、统一调查登记</span>。当然，为实现有序过渡，产业管理可以继续采取资源分类利用管理的模式，如按照土地、矿产、森林、草原和海洋等资源类型进行开发利用，做到单种资源管理的科学化、合理化和专业化。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">同时，我国应该<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">加强国家对自然资源所有权的控制</span><span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">，对生态区位重要的国有自然资源实行国家、省级分级所有和管理的机制，对集体的国家级重点自然资源逐步实行收购</span>，由政府投资国家公园，发挥国土保安作用。加大对自然资源使用权人的产权限制，通过用途管制手段，达到保护自然资源的目的。</p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="white-space: normal;box-sizing: border-box;">另外，要建立<span style="color: rgb(255, 76, 0);box-sizing: border-box;">生态补偿转移机制</span>，突出自然资源的生态价值，促进自然资源的市场化配置，激励保护自然资源。</p></section></section></section></section></section></section><section class="Powered-by-gulangu V5" style="box-sizing: border-box;" powered-by="gulangu"><section class="" style="box-sizing: border-box;"><section class="" style="font-size: 14px;box-sizing: border-box;"><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  /></p><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">内容来源：中国自然资源报</strong></p><p style="box-sizing: border-box;">作者单位：武汉市土地利用和城市空间规划研究中心</p><p style="box-sizing: border-box;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;"  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